The development of missile technology in countries of the EU has been shaped by the legacy of the Second World War. In Germany, all research and production of missile systems was halted after 1945, despite the country’s vast experience and contributions to global rocketry. The United Kingdom and France, by contrast, continued to develop their own independent nuclear and missile programs. Cross-European cooperation in this field began only in the 1960s.

Today, most EU countries act as consumers rather than producers of missile systems. However, as members of NATO, they collectively maintain a substantial combined capability.

Since the United Kingdom’s exit from the European Union and in the wake of major shifts in the continent’s security architecture, the development of missile systems in EU states has entered a new phase. For decades, many countries relied almost entirely on American systems or on weapons inherited from the Cold War era. Now there is a visible trend toward strategic autonomy, national high-tech projects, and deeper industrial integration.

The missile forces of the EU countries are gradually evolving from a fragmented set of national programs into a layered and interconnected structure capable of addressing a wide spectrum of missions – from tactical battlefield operations to strategic deterrence.

Still, this progress remains uneven. EU’s growing emphasis on autonomy often clashes with its reliance on American technology and NATO frameworks, leaving its missile ambitions both ambitious and constrained.

France: The last independent arsenal in the EU

France was once the only country of the bloc to maintain a fully operational nuclear triad, which included land-based ballistic missiles, nuclear-powered submarines loaded with ballistic missiles, and long-range bombers equipped with nuclear payloads. However, following the collapse of the USSR and the easing of global tensions, the need for such a broad deterrent diminished. Land-based medium-range ballistic missiles were decommissioned, and plans for their modernization were abandoned.

Today, the core of France’s nuclear capability lies in its M51 intercontinental solid-fuel submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which form the backbone of its strategic deterrent. The M51 has a range exceeding 8,000 kilometers and carries multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs). These missiles are continually upgraded, and one of the four submarine launch platforms is always on patrol, each armed with 16 missiles – considered sufficient for peacetime readiness.

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